Part I: Getting Started with the EQ-i 2.0
The Building Blocks of Emotional Intelligence
What is Emotional Intelligence?
Emotional intelligence as a practical concept revolutionized the way people view intelligence. This page looks at a brief history of the theories and research that informed the creation and use of the EQ-i® 2.0.
Intelligence has traditionally been defined as the capacity to understand, learn, recall, think rationally, solve problems, and apply what one has learned (Kaplan & Sadock, 1991). This capacity has conventionally been measured by cognitive intelligence or “IQ” (Intelligence Quotient).
Two of the most popular intelligence tests are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. The former instrument was the first, developed in 1905 and published in 1916 (Terman, 1916). The Wechsler scale was developed in 1939 (Wechsler, 1939) and has evolved over the years, with the fourth edition released in 2008.
David Wechsler’s definition of “general intelligence” is perhaps the most useful, because it lends itself to the consideration of other forms of intelligence in addition to cognitive intelligence. He viewed this concept as the “aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his (her) environment” (Wechsler, 1958, p.7). In essence, this includes the ability to adapt to new situations and to cope with life circumstances successfully. Within this broad definition and wide conceptual framework it is possible to consider the notion of emotional intelligence. In fact, Wechsler discussed these “non-intellective” factors in general intelligence as early as 1940 (Wechsler, 1940). Although he concentrated his own work more on the “intellective” (or cognitive) aspects of intelligence, he was always clear about the existence and the importance of the non-cognitive component of general intelligence. Wechsler’s foresight and recognition of the importance of emotional intelligence is evident in his writings:
The main question is whether non-intellective, that is, affective and cognitive abilities are admissible as factors of general intelligence. The contention of this paper has been that such factors are not only admissible, but necessary. I have tried to show that in addition to intellective there are also definite non-intellective factors that determine intelligent behavior. If the foregoing observations are correct, it follows that we cannot expect to measure total intelligence until our tests also include some measures of the non-intellective factors (Wechsler, 1943, p. 103).
In 1948, Leeper proposed that “emotional thought” is part of and contributes to “logical thought” and intelligence in general. These early proposals were succeeded nearly half a century later by the ideas of Harvard University’s Howard Gardner, who broadened the way people have traditionally considered cognitive intelligence since the early twentieth century (Gardner, 1983). Gardner believes intelligence encompasses multiple dimensions, combining a variety of cognitive aspects with elements of emotional intelligence (or “personal intelligence,” as he called it). The emotional (or personal) dimension of his concept of “multiple intelligence” includes two general components that he referred to as “intrapsychic capacities” and “interpersonal skills.”
The concept of emotional intelligence has brought new depth to the understanding of human intelligence; it enhanced the ability to evaluate one’s general or overall intelligence. Not unlike cognitive intelligence, however, emotional intelligence has been difficult to define. Broadly speaking, emotional intelligence addresses the emotional, personal, social, and survival dimensions of intelligence, which are often more important for daily functioning than the more traditional cognitive aspects of intelligence. Emotional intelligence is concerned with understanding oneself and others, relating to people, and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings in order to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands. Emotional intelligence is tactical (immediate functioning), while cognitive intelligence is strategic (long-term capacity). Emotional intelligence helps to predict success, because it reflects how a person applies knowledge to the immediate situation. In a way, to measure emotional intelligence is to measure one’s “common sense” and ability to get along in the world.
The evolution of the EQ-i as an assessment of emotional intelligence began in 1980 with the independent development of a theoretically eclectic and multifactorial approach to operationally defining and measuring emotional intelligence. The seminal work of Bar-On (1980) was inspired by his work as a clinical psychologist, with the goal of answering the question, “Why do some people have better psychological well-being than others?” This question ultimately expanded into, “Why are some individuals better able to succeed in life than others?” These questions commanded a thorough review of the factors (emotional skills) thought to determine general success, in addition to maintaining positive emotional health. It soon became clear that the key to determining and predicting success is not cognitive intelligence alone, as many cognitively intelligent people flounder in life, while many less cognitively intelligent individuals succeed and prosper. During the 3-year period between 1983 and 1986 while he completed his doctoral studies in South Africa, Bar-On had directed his efforts at identifying the most important factors involved in coping with environmental demands, at which point his research revealed a non-significant relationship between cognitive intelligence and emotional intelligence.
The second phase of Bar-On’s research was conducted in Israel during the latter part of 1986 through late 1993. The third and final stage of Bar-On’s research, that led to the first commercial version of the EQ-i, began in 1994. This stage involved the continued examination of the EQ-i components to describe and measure the various subsets of emotional intelligence on a more diverse population. Collaborative research projects were conducted throughout Argentina, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, India, Israel, Nigeria, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, and the United States. These early development stages of the EQ-i included over 10,000 people from around the world.
Psychologists continued to challenge the conventional view of intelligence. John Mayer at the University of New Hampshire and Peter Salovey at Yale University concentrated their research efforts on the “emotional” aspect of intelligence (Mayer, 1986; Mayer, DiPalo & Salovey, 1990; Mayer, Mamberg & Volanth, 1988; Mayer & Salovey, 1988, 1993, 1995; Mayer, Salovey, Gomberg-Kauffman & Blainey, 1991; Mayer & Volanth, 1985; Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989; Salovey, Hsee & Mayer, 1993; Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Salovey, Mayer & Rosenhan, 1991; Salovey & Rodin, 1985). They expanded upon Gardner’s approach and looked primarily at six components of “emotional intelligence” that are very similar to what Bar-On (1997) refers to as Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, Empathy, Interpersonal Relationship, Stress Tolerance, and Impulse Control. Of the 15 factors underlying the EQ-i, 11 factors had been at the forefront of Bar-On’s research for nearly two decades. The 15 factors of the original EQ-i (Bar-On, 1997) and their abbreviations are in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. 15 Factors of the Original EQ-i
Intrapersonal Components
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Interpersonal Components
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Adaptability Components
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Stress Management Components
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General Mood Components
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Copyright © 2011 Multi-Health Systems Inc. All rights reserved. Based on the original BarOn EQ-i authored by Reuven Bar-On, copyright 1997.
The release of Daniel Goleman’s (1995) Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ served to popularize the construct of emotional intelligence, rendering it a hot topic among academics, coaches, consultants, psychologists, and the layperson alike, thereby paving the way for—and in some cases creating a demand for—a valid and reliable measure of EI. The extensive work of Reuven Bar-On culminated in 1997 with the release of the first psychometrically valid and reliable measure of emotional intelligence, the EQ-i (Bar-On, 1997).
The term emotional intelligence (EI) has significantly evolved since the first release of the EQ-i, enduring rigorous debate over how to define it, how to measure it, whether it can be developed, and whether or not it adds incremental value over and above personality and IQ. This intense scrutiny of EI helped to refine the construct; not only has EI endured, its utility is more deeply understood, and its use more widespread. As a result, the operational definition of emotional intelligence as it relates to the EQ-i 2.0 is:
…a set of emotional and social skills that influence the way we perceive and express ourselves, develop and maintain social relationships, cope with challenges, and use emotional information in an effective and meaningful way.”
The following section will take a detailed look at the rich empirical support for the EQ-i that provided the foundation for developing the EQ-i 2.0.